Defining Wal-Mart

Defining Wal-Mart Wal-Mart is able to deliver their customers a quality product at low prices. Wal-Mart does this by being efficient. This efficiency shows how they are able to acquire goods from all over the world, and get them to stores, which in turn, are also all over the world. Only through a flawless logistical system is this ability able to send products to any location at a moments notice. Wal-Mart's effective logistical system lies in the flexibility it has when choosing suppliers. Wal-Mart will only pay the most competitive prices when negotiating with suppliers, and those suppliers know that. It would be simple for Wal-Mart to find a different supplier of a particular item with a lower price. This gives Wal-Mart a great amount of leeway when handling suppliers. Should a particular supplier know Wal-Mart has found a lower price, it will lower its own price accordingly. They know that Wal-Mart's logistical system can handle transition seamlessly and therefore they gain nothing by refusing to reduce their prices.English: Supermercado de Wal-Mart in Spring Branch...Another factor which allows Wal-Mart such low prices is that they buy in such large quantities that transportation from one end of the supply chain to another is not as costly for additional units. Wal-Mart buys in such quantities that they have the luxury of using bigger trucks which use less fuel to move their goods back and forth. Also, if they must resort to using shipping services to transport their items from one place to another, Wal-Mart will give them so much business they earn huge discounts. Wal-Mart is able to offer items much cheaper than competitors because their logistical system is so effective, and the reason it is so stems from its flexibility (Simchi-Levi, 2008). All of these elements together give a great deal of added value to the...

Atticus Finch Biography

Atticus Finch Biography Atticus Finch is one of the greatest fictional figures in American literature. Both in the book and in the film, Atticus stands larger-than-life, bold-and-courageous against the falsehood and injustice. He risks his life and his career (seemingly without care), as he defends a black man against charges of rape (which were based on lies, fear, and ignorance). Where Atticus Appears (and Inspiration for This Character): Atticus first appears in Harper Lees only novel, ​​To Kill a Mockingbird. He is said to have been based on Lees own father,  Amasa Lee, (which puts a possible autobiographical slant to this famous novel). Amasa held a number of positions (including a bookkeeper and financial manager)he also practiced law in Monroe County, and his writing explored race-relations topics. When he prepared for the role of Atticus Finch in the film version,  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Gregory Peck went to Alabama and met Lees father. (He appears to have died in 1962, the same year the Academy-Award-winning film was released). His Relationships During the course of the novel, we discover that his wife died, though we never find out how she died. Her death has left a gaping hole in the family, which has been (at least partially) filled by their housekeeper/cook (Calpurnia, a stern disciplinarian). There is no mention of Atticus in relation to other women in the novel, which seems to suggest that he is focused on doing his job (making a difference, and pursuing justice), while he raises his children, Jem (Jeremy Atticus Finch) and Scout (Jean Louise Finch). His Career   Atticus is a Maycomb lawyer, and he appears to be descended from an old local family. Hes well-known in the community, and he appears to be well respected and liked. However, his decision to defend Tom Robinson against the false charges of rape lands him in a great deal of trouble. The Scottsboro Case, a legal court case involving nine black accused and convicted under extremely dubious evidence, occurred in 1931when Harper Lee was five-years-old. This case is also an inspiration for the novel.

Discuss the events of one cardiac cycle (electrical and mechenical Essay

Discuss the events of one cardiac cycle (electrical and mechenical events) - Essay Example Cardiac muscles are myogenic, which means that their contractions are started by the muscle itself, the action beginning from the sino-atriol node. The first stage of the cardiac cycle is known as the ventricular filling, which involves the flow of blood from the atria to the ventricles. The other stages include the movement of blood from the right ventricle through the pulmonary artery and the left ventricle through the aorta (Guyton and Hall, 2006). The contraction of the heart muscles on the left and right atria, which contract at the same time, is known as the atria systole (Klabunde, 2012). The events begin with the electrical current, which stimulates the myocardium contracts the heart chambers. This is then followed by the mechanical events. The electrical currents of the heart begin at the Sino atria node where action potential is generated (Williams, 2001). In the Sino-atria node, there is a rich supply of cells, capillaries and nervous supply, and the electrical current travels across the right and left atria. The atria are separated from the ventricles by a non-conducting band of connective tissues. Between the cardiac muscles are disc called gap junctions that provide electrical resistance at a low rate. The stimulation of each muscle fiber causes an electrical current to pass over the whole heart hence no external stimulus is required. The wave reaches the atrio-ventricular nodes in the lower right atrium, where it delays for a short period of time before conduction to the ventricles through the bundles up the purkinje fibers (Klabunde, 2004). Delaying at the atrio-ventricular node allows enough time for blood in the atria to get into the right ventricles. The atrio-ventricular node may act as a pace maker, which makes the action potential slow and unstable, depolarization occurs constantly due to the fall of calcium and potassium ions and this effect on the resting potential affects the heart rate. The mechanical

Operating system memory management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Operating system memory management - Essay Example It takes place in the following steps: The mapping from one address space to another is termed as binding. For a program to execute it must be copied into main memory at a particular location. Many instructions use "fixed" addresses these must be bound to "fixed" locations in the memory. This binding of instructions and data to memory addresses Dynamic loading involves loading routines into memory only when required. This is done during execution. Dynamic loading reduces the memory requirements of large programs. This is especially the case if there is a large set of infrequently used routines. Dynamic linking is often used for libraries. Only a "stub" of the library is kept in the programs image. When a program calls one of these routines, the routine is loaded and linked into memory. All programs share the one copy of the same library routine. Dynamic linking requires the operating systems intervention as sharing between processes is required. Implementation is done through memory tables to keep track of both main memory i.e. real memory as well as virtual memory. Also there is a unit MMU(Memory management unit) that performs the following tasks: Sometimes there may be a shortage of main memory due to the size of various applications and also in some cases several active processes may need to share memory at the same time. In such cases partitioning of memory is done. Partitioning refers to systematic division of memory into blocks so that a process may be allocated to a block. This is of various types: 1. Fixed partition memory management: This is the simplest memory management scheme for multiprogrammed system. Here the memory is divided into fixed partitions. This is done when the system is initialized and won't be changed during the system operation. This again of two types: Single partition allocation: Here the user is provided with a bare machine and has full control of entire memory space. It's advantages are: Maximum

Sports minded individuals Essay Example for Free

Sports minded individuals Essay High school days are usually regarded as the most memorable moment in a student’s life. For the conscientious group, it is a preparation for college life and a time to ponder on one’s interest and career choice. For the less serious and happy-go-lucky young students, it is a time to establish close friendship and romantic relationship. For the sports minded individuals, it is a time to gear up and grab the attention of various college and university officials who may hand them their athletic scholarships. Regardless of whether students are deemed hard-working, lazy, diligent, or carefree, there is a special event in their life that will remain unforgettable – the prom night. The summer of 2005 was not only spent swimming and sunbathing in the beach with my family and friends. I took advantage of the school break to scout for a reasonably priced and elegant prom gown. I spent many hours browsing the web for a suitable gown as I was undecided on whether to settle for a halter, strapless, off-shoulder, or V-neck gown. There were many times when I attempted to design my own evening wear but ended up tearing the paper and throwing them in the garbage can. I never realized that preparing for the prom was so difficult for a young high school lady. It was not only the gown that females need to prepare. The matching shoes and bag, earrings and necklace, hairstyle and make-up must also be an important part of our wardrobe. â€Å"Ahhh†¦. I wish that I am a male and all I need to wear is a tux, a white shirt, ribbon, black shoes and socks. No need to wear any make-up and jewelry. All that is needed is a good haircut and a well-shaved face†, I told myself while dropping to the bed when I reached a point of desperation in finding the right attire for me. Two weeks of my summer break was spent on learning how to do my own facial make-over. I had to call my friend, Gale to help me out as she was the most glamorous looking person in class. Gale never left home without fixing her hair and applying make-up. â€Å"Oww†¦that hurts! † I yelled as Gale plucked a fine hair in my eyebrow using a pair of tweezers. â€Å"Hahaha†¦Don’t be a sissy, Faye! † Gale uttered as she giggled at my reaction. â€Å"Can’t you just use a thread instead? † I asked as I vigorously massaged my eyebrow. â€Å"I’m not a beauty expert silly. It will only take a while and your virgin eyebrow will get used to this†, Gale said as she continued to pluck more strands of hair from my eyebrow. â€Å"Oww†¦Gale! † I yelled again and massaged my eyebrow that has turned pinkish due to skin irritation and pain. Gale did not give up on me and she learned to ignore my deafening shout of pain. I am glad that my parents and younger brother were not at home at that time. I could imagine how much my brother would make fun of me and would mimic every action and words that I uttered. Towards the end of the eyebrow plucking session, I felt the cold sweat on my body and the discomfort in my tummy. When I felt the need to run to the restroom, I stood up but it was too late to control the unexpected. â€Å"Poooottt†¦. poootttt†, the sound of my fart strikes the air. â€Å"Yucckkk†¦. Faye! That was gross! † Gale yelled as she covered her nose and walk towards to the window. â€Å"Sorry Gale! † I responded as my face turned pale. To blow the foul odor away, I grabbed a towel and wave it vigorously against the air. Just when I was about to wipe my sweat, Gale noticed something on my chair. â€Å"Faye†¦. what’s this on your chair? † she asked while looking closely at the chair I sat on. â€Å"Gosh†¦you peed on your chair! † she uttered in disbelief as her blue eyes widened. Suddenly, I looked at her, gazed at the chair, touched the front and back side of my shorts and realized that I must have peed while Gale was plucking my eyebrow. While Gale was giggling, I quickly ran to the bathroom to change my shorts and underwear. It was an embarrassing experience for me considering that this was the only time Gale witnessed someone lose control of her bladder as a result of an eyebrow make-over. When I returned to my room, my chair was already clean and dry. Gale cleaned the mess that I created and I felt that I wanted to hide my face under my pillows and bed covers. Sensing my uneasiness and shame due to my silence, Gale tried to divert my attention by discussing the things that I must prepare for the prom. She also gave me tips on how to choose the right gown for my physique and how to fix my hair for the evening occasion. In spite of the humiliating incident, Gale continued to drop by our home to prepare me for the event. There was also a time when we listened to some popular songs and music that may be played during our prom. Then, we pretended to be the King and Queen of the night and we danced to the music of our favorite love song while we were singing together. Before the end of our summer vacation, I was able to apply my make-up and fix my hair with ease. It took some time before I was able to pluck and shape my eyebrow independently. There were many times when I asked Gale to help me and in every session I became wary of my bladder. I learned to take a break each time I find it difficult to tolerate the pain. The prom was indeed a memorable event in my life. Everyone was impressed with the changes in my appearance when they saw me dressed in halter gown, wearing a 3-inch high heeled pair of shoes, a make-up and an attractive hairdo. Gale became the prom queen and I became the girlfriend of the prom king a month after he unintentionally stepped on the hem of my gown that led me to lose my balance on the dance floor and bumped on the waiter who was serving drinks. Well, that was another embarrassing moment. Gale became my best friend and from time to time we both laugh as we recall the summer of our pre-prom preparation days.

Working With Multiracial Students Essay example -- melting pot, interra

America has always been considered the melting pot of the world, but in recent years with the climb in the number of interracial marriages, (Root 1996) American school systems must learn how to cater to the needs of multiracial students. In this paper, multiracial â€Å"refers to people who are of two or more racial heritages. It is the most inclusive term to refer to people across all racial mixes. Thus it also includes biracial people† (Root 1996). Multiracial students face problems with developing their racial identity and feeling approval from peers who are not mixed, making their experiences in school more difficult especially in a social context (Gibbs 1990 as sited in moss and davis). For current and future educators, this means that there will be a growing need to support students from mixed backgrounds and create curriculums that cater to their needs as well as give those students positive perspectives on their racial make up. This paper will explore the complications that multiracial students face with their identity development and how schools and teachers can positively impact this development. Multiracial students face many problems coming to terms with their racial identity due to the inability to fall under a mono-racial category. In recent years, the amount of biracial births are out numbering the amount of mono-racial births, and these children will soon be entering the school system (Root 1996) with new unique problems when concerning their own racial identity. According to Poston, â€Å"Racial identity is defined as "pride in one's racial and cultural identity" (1990, p. 152 as cited in counseling biracial students). Compared to mono-racial peers, multiracial students are faced with constant conflicts over how to embrac... ... all aspects that make up their racial identity (Root 1996). Multiracial inclusion can be laced into everyday activities and projects. Works Cited Harris, H. L. (2006). African american school counselors: Their perceptions of biracial individuals. Journal Of Professional Counseling: Practice, Theory & Research, 34(1/2), 1-19. Chiong, J. A. (1998). Racial categorization of multiracial children in schools. Greenwood Press Moss, R. C., & Davis, D. (2008). Counseling biracial students: A review of issues and interventions. Journal Of Multicultural Counseling & Development, 36(4), 219-230. Wallace, K. R. (2004). Working with multiracial students : Critical perspectives on research and practice. Greenwich, Conn: Information Age Publishing. Root, M., P., (1996) The multiracial experience: Racial borders as the new frontier. Copyright 1996 by Sage Publications, Inc.

Cystic Fibrosis

————————————————- Introduction Cystic fibrosis  (also called  CF  or  mucoviscidosis) is an  autosomal  recessive  genetic disorder  that affects most critically the  lungs, and also the  pancreas,  liver, and  intestine. It is characterized by abnormal transport of  chloride  and  sodium  across an  epithelium, leading to thick, viscous secretions. The name  refers to the characteristic  scarring  (fibrosis) and  cyst  formation within the  pancreas that was first recognized in the 1930s.Difficulty in breathing  is the most serious symptom and results from frequent  lung infections  which are treated with  antibiotics, therapies and several other medications. Other  symptoms, including  sinus infections,  poor growth, and  infertility affect other parts of the body. A breathing treatment for cystic fibrosis, usi ng a mask nebulizer and a ThAIRapy Vest A breathing treatment for cystic fibrosis, using a mask nebulizer and a ThAIRapy Vest CF is caused by a  mutation  in the  gene  for the  protein  cystic fibrosis trans-membrane conductance regulator  (CFTR).This protein is required to regulate the components of sweat,  digestive  juices, and  mucus. CFTR regulates the movement of  chloride  and  sodium ions across epithelial membranes, such as the alveolar epithelia located in the  lungs. Although most people without CF have two working copies of the CFTR gene, only one is needed to prevent cystic fibrosis due to the disorder's recessive nature. CF develops when neither gene works normally (as a result of mutation) and therefore has  autosomal recessive  inheritance.CF is most common among  Caucasians; one in 25 people of European descent  carries one  allele  for CF. The  World Health Organization  states that â€Å"In the European Union, 1 in 200 0–3000 new-borns is found to be affected by CF†. Individuals with cystic fibrosis can be diagnosed before birth by  genetic testing or by a  sweat test  in early childhood. Ultimately,  lung transplantation  is often necessary as CF worsens. ————————————————- Signs and symptomsThe hallmark symptoms of cystic fibrosis are salty tasting skin,  poor growth and poor weight gain despite a normal food intake,  accumulation of thick, sticky mucus, frequent chest infections, and coughing or shortness of breath. Signs and symptoms often appear in infancy and childhood, such as  bowel movement obstruction  in new-born babies. As the children grow, they must exercise to release the mucus present in the alveoli. Ciliated  epithelial cells present  in the patient have a mutated protein that leads to abnormally viscous mucus production.The poor growth in children typically presents as an inability to gain weight or height at the same rate as their peers and is occasionally not diagnosed until investigation is initiated for poor growth. The causes of growth failure are multifactorial and include chronic lung infection, poor absorption of nutrients through the gastrointestinal tract, and increased metabolic demand due to chronic illness. In rare cases, cystic fibrosis can manifest itself as a coagulation disorder. A double recessive allele is needed for cystic fibrosis to be apparent.Young children are especially sensitive to vitamin  malabsorptive disorders because only a very small amount of vitamin K crosses the placenta, leaving the child with very low reserves. Because factors II, VII, IX, and X (clotting factors) are vitamin K–dependent, low levels of vitamin K can result in coagulation problems. Consequently, when a child presents with unexplained bruising, a coagulation evaluation may be warranted to determine whet her there is an underlying disease. Lungs and sinuses Lung disease results from clogging of the airways due to mucus build-up, decreased  mucociliary clearance, and resulting  inflammation.Inflammation and infection cause injury and structural changes to the lungs, leading to a variety of symptoms. In the early stages, regular incessant coughing along with copious  phlegm  production, and decreased ability to exercise are common. Many of these symptoms occur when  bacteria that normally inhabit the thick mucus grow out of control and cause pneumonia. In later stages, changes in the architecture of the lung, such as pathology in the major airways (bronchiectasis), further exacerbate difficulties in breathing.Other symptoms include coughing up blood (hemoptysis), high  blood pressure  in the lung (pulmonary hypertension),  heart failure, difficulties getting enough  oxygen to the body (hypoxia), and respiratory failure requiring support with breathing masks, such asà ‚  bi-level positive airway pressure  machines or  ventilators. Staphylococcus aureus, Haemophilus influenzae, and  Pseudomonas aeruginosa  are the three most common organisms causing lung infections in CF patients. In addition to typical bacterial infections, people with CF more commonly develop other types of lung disease.Among these is  allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis, in which the body's response to the common  fungus  Aspergillus fumigatus  causes worsening of breathing problems. Another is infection with Mycobacterium avium  complex (MAC), a group of bacteria related to  tuberculosis, which can cause a lot of lung damage and does not respond to common antibiotics. Mucus in the  paranasal sinuses  is equally thick and may also cause blockage of the sinus passages, leading to infection. This may cause facial pain, fever, nasal drainage, and  headaches.Individuals with CF may develop overgrowth of the nasal tissue (nasal polyps) due to inflammati on from chronic sinus infections. Recurrent sinonasal polyps can occur in as many as 10% to 25% of CF patients. These polyps can block the nasal passages and increase breathing difficulties. Cardiorespiratory complications are the most common cause of death (~80%) in patients at most CF centers in the United States. Gastrointestinal Prior to prenatal and  newborn screening, cystic fibrosis was often diagnosed when a newborn infant failed to pass feces (meconium).Meconium may completely block the  intestines  and cause serious illness. This condition, called  meconium ileus, occurs in 5–10%  of newborns with CF. In addition, protrusion of internal  rectal  membranes (rectal prolapse) is more common, occurring in as many as 10% of children with CF, and it is caused by increased fecal volume, malnutrition, and  pressure due to coughing. The thick mucus seen in the lungs has a counterpart in thickened secretions from the  pancreas, an organ responsible for provi ding digestive  that help break down food.These secretions block the  exocrine  movement of the digestive enzymes into the  duodenum and result in irreversible damage to the pancreas, often with painful inflammation (pancreatitis). The  pancreatic ducts  are totally plugged in more advanced cases, usually seen in older children or adolescents. This causes atrophy of the exocrine glands and progressive fibrosis. The lack of digestive enzymes leads to difficulty absorbing nutrients with their subsequent excretion in the feces, a disorder known as malabsorption. Malabsorption leads to  malnutrition  and poor growth and evelopment because of calorie loss. Resultant hypoproteinemia  may be severe enough to cause generalized edema. Individuals with CF also have difficulties absorbing the fat-soluble vitamins  A,  D,  E, and  K. In addition to the pancreas problems, people with cystic fibrosis experience more  heartburn, intestinal blockage by  intussusception , and constipation. Older individuals with CF may develop  distal intestinal obstruction syndrome  when thickened feces cause intestinal blockage. Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency occurs in the majority (85% to 90%) of patients with CF.It is mainly associated with â€Å"severe† CFTR mutations, where both alleles are completely nonfunctional (e. g. ?F508/? F508). It occurs in 10% to 15% of patients with one â€Å"severe† and one â€Å"mild† CFTR mutation where there still is a little CFTR activity, or where there are two â€Å"mild† CFTR mutations. In these milder cases, there is still sufficient pancreatic exocrine function so that enzyme supplementation is not required. There are usually no other GI complications in pancreas-sufficient phenotypes, and in general, such individuals usually have excellent growth and development.Despite this, idiopathic  chronic pancreatitis  can occur in a subset of pancreas-sufficient individuals with CF, and is a ssociated with recurrent abdominal pain and life-threatening complications. Thickened secretions also may cause liver problems in patients with CF. Bile  secreted by the liver to aid in digestion may block the  bile ducts, leading to liver damage. Over time, this can lead to scarring and nodularity (cirrhosis). The liver fails to rid the blood of toxins and does not make important  proteins, such as those responsible for  blood clotting. Liver disease is the third most common cause of death associated with cystic fibrosis.Endocrine Clubbing in the fingers of a person with cystic fibrosis Clubbing in the fingers of a person with cystic fibrosis The  pancreas  contains the  islets of Langerhans, which are responsible for making insulin, a hormone that helps regulate blood  glucose. Damage of the pancreas can lead to loss of the islet  cells, leading to a type of diabetes that is unique to those with the disease. This cystic fibrosis-related diabetes  (CFRD) shares characteristics that can be found in  type 1and  type 2  diabetics, and is one of the principal non-pulmonary complications of CF.Vitamin D is involved in  calcium  and  phosphate  regulation. Poor uptake of vitamin D from the diet because of malabsorption can lead to the bone disease  osteoporosis  in which weakened bones are more susceptible to  fractures. In addition, people with CF often develop clubbing  of their fingers and toes due to the effects of chronic illness and  low oxygen  in their tissues. Infertility Infertility  affects both men and women. At least 97% of men with cystic fibrosis are infertile, but not sterile and can have children with assisted reproductive techniques.The main cause of infertility in men with cystic fibrosis is congenital absence of the vas deferens  (which normally connects the  testes  to the  ejaculatory ducts  of the  penis), but potentially also by other mechanisms such as causing  azoospermia,  te ratospermia  and  oligoasthenospermia. Many men found to have congenital absence of the vas deferens during evaluation for infertility have a mild, previously undiagnosed form of CF. Some women have fertility difficulties due to thickened cervical mucus or malnutrition. In severe cases, malnutrition disrupts  ovulation  and causes  amenorrhea. ———————————————— Cause CF is caused by a  mutation  in the  gene  cystic fibrosis trans-membrane conductance regulator  (CFTR). The most common mutation,  ? F508, is a deletion (? signifying deletion) of three nucleotides  that results in a loss of the amino acid  phenylalanine  (F) at the 508th position on the protein. This mutation accounts for two-thirds (66–70%) of CF cases worldwide and 90% of cases in the  United States; however, there are over 1500 other mutations that can produce CF.Althou gh most people have two working copies (alleles) of the CFTR gene, only one is needed to prevent cystic fibrosis. CF develops when neither allele can produce a functional CFTR protein. Thus, CF is considered an  autosomal recessive disease. The  CFTR gene, found at the q31. 2  locus  of  chromosome 7, is 230,000  base pairs  long, and creates a protein that is 1,480  amino acids  long. More specifically the location is between base pair 117,120,016 to 117,308,718 on the long arm of chromosome 7, region 3, band 1 and sub-band 2, represented as 7q31. . Structurally, CFTR is a type of gene known as an  ABC gene. The product of this gene (the CFTR) is a chloride ion channel important in creating sweat,  digestive  juices and  mucus. This protein possesses two  ATP-hydrolyzing  domains, which allows the protein to use  energy  in the form of  ATP. It also contains two domains comprising 6  alpha helices  apiece, which allow the protein to cross the cell membrane. A regulatory  binding site  on the protein allows activation by  phosphorylation, mainly by  cAMP-dependent protein kinase.The  carboxyl terminal  of the protein is anchored to the  cytoskeleton  by a  PDZ  domain interaction. In addition, there is increasing evidence that  genetic modifiers  besides CFTR modulate the frequency and severity of the disease. One example is  mannan-binding lectin, which is involved in  innate immunity  by facilitating  phagocytosis  of microorganisms. Polymorphisms in one or both mannan-binding lectin alleles that result in lower circulating levels of the protein are associated with a threefold higher risk of end-stage lung disease, as well as an increased burden of chronic bacterial infections. ———————————————— Pathophysiology Molecular structure of the CFTR protein Molecular structure of the CFTR protein There are several mutations in the  CFTR  gene, and different mutations cause different defects in the CFTR protein, sometimes causing a milder or more severe disease. These protein defects are also targets for drugs which can sometimes restore their function. ?F508-CFTR, which occurs in >90% of patients in the U. S. , creates a protein that does not  fold  normally and is degraded by the cell.Other mutations result in proteins that are too short (truncated) because  production  is ended prematurely. Other mutations produce proteins that do not use energy normally, do not allow  chloride iodide  and  thiocyanate  to cross the membrane appropriately,  or are degraded at a faster rate than normal. Mutations may also lead to fewer copies of the CFTR protein being produced. The protein created by this gene is anchored to the  outer membrane of  cells  in the  sweat glands, lungs, pancreas, and all other remaining exocrine glands in the body.Th e protein spans this membrane and acts as a  channel  connecting the inner part of the cell (cytoplasm) to the  surrounding fluid. This channel is primarily responsible for controlling the movement of halogens from inside to outside of the cell; however, in the sweat ducts it facilitates the movement of chloride from the sweat into the cytoplasm. When the CFTR protein does not work, chloride and thiocyanate  are trapped inside the cells in the airway and outside in the skin. Then  hypothiocyanite, OSCN, cannot be produced by immune defense system.Because chloride is  negatively charged, this creates a difference in the electrical potential inside and outside the cell causing  cations  to cross into the cell. Sodium is the most common cation in the extracellular space and the combination of sodium and chloride creates the  salt, which is lost in high amounts in the sweat of individuals with CF. This lost salt forms the basis for the sweat test. Most of the damage in CF is due to blockage of the narrow passages of affected organs with thickened secretions.These blockages lead to remodeling and infection in the lung, damage by accumulated digestive enzymes in the pancreas, blockage of the intestines by thick faeces, etc. There are several theories on how the defects in the protein and cellular function cause the clinical effects. One theory is that the lack of halogen and pseudohalogen (mainly, chloride, iodide and thiocyanate) exiting through the CFTR protein leads to the accumulation of more viscous, nutrient-rich mucus in the lungs that allows bacteria to hide from the body's  immune system.Another theory is that the CFTR protein failure leads to a paradoxical increase in sodium and chloride uptake, which, by leading to increased water reabsorption, creates dehydrated and thick mucus. Yet another theory is that abnormal chloride movement  out  of the cell leads to dehydration of mucus, pancreatic secretions, biliary secretions, etc. Chr onic infections The lungs of individuals with cystic fibrosis are colonized and infected by bacteria from an early age. These bacteria, which often spread among individuals with CF, thrive in the altered mucus, which collects in the small airways of the lungs.This mucus leads to the formation of bacterial microenvironments known as biofilms that are difficult for immune cells and antibiotics to penetrate. Viscous secretions and persistent respiratory infections repeatedly damage the lung by gradually remodeling the airways, which makes infection even more difficult to eradicate. Over time, both the types of bacteria and their individual characteristics change in individuals with CF. In the initial stage, common bacteria such as  Staphylococcus aureus  and  Hemophilus influenzae  colonize and infect the lungs.Eventually,  Pseudomonas aeruginosa  (and sometimes  Burkholderia cepacia) dominates. By 18 years of age, 80% of patients with classic cystic fibrosis harbor  Ps eudomonas aeruginosa, and another 3. 5% harbor Burkholderia cepacia. Once within the lungs, these bacteria adapt to the environment and develop  resistance  to commonly used antibiotics. Pseudomonas  can develop special characteristics that allow the formation of large colonies, known as â€Å"mucoid†Ã‚  Pseudomonas, which are rarely seen in people that do not have CF. One way infection spreads is by passing between different individuals with CF.In the past, people with CF often participated in summer â€Å"CF Camps† and other recreational gatherings. Hospitals grouped patients with CF into common areas and routine equipment (such as  nebulizers)  was not sterilized between individual patients. This led to transmission of more dangerous strains of bacteria among groups of patients. As a result, individuals with CF are routinely isolated from one another in the healthcare setting and healthcare providers are encouraged to wear gowns and gloves when examining p atients with CF to limit the spread of virulent bacterial strains.CF patients may also have their airways chronically colonized by filamentous fungi (such as  Aspergillus fumigatus,  Scedosporium apiospermum,  Aspergillus terreus) and/or yeasts (such as  Candida albicans); other filamentous fungi less commonly isolated include Aspergillus flavus  and  Aspergillus nidulans  (occur transiently in CF respiratory secretions), and  Exophiala dermatitidis  and Scedosporium prolificans  (chronic airway-colonizers); some filamentous fungi like  Penicillium emersonii  and  Acrophialophora fusisporaare encountered in patients almost exclusively in the context of CF.Defective mucociliary clearance characterizing CF is associated with local immunological disorders. In addition, the prolonged therapy with antibiotics and the use of corticosteroid treatments may also facilitate fungal growth. Although the clinical relevance of the fungal airway colonization is still a ma tter of debate, filamentous fungi may contribute to the local inflammatory response, and therefore to the progressive deterioration of the lung function, as often happens with allergic broncho-pulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) – the ost common fungal disease in the context of CF, involving a Th2-driven immune response to Aspergillus. ————————————————- Diagnosis and monitoring CFTR gene on chromosome 7 CFTR gene on chromosome 7 Cystic fibrosis may be diagnosed by many different methods including  newborn screening,  sweat testing, and genetic testing. As of 2006 in the United States, 10 percent of cases are diagnosed shortly after birth as part of newborn screening programs.The newborn screen initially measures for raised blood concentration of immunoreactive trypsinogen. Infants with an abnormal newborn screen need a sweat test to confirm the CF diagnosis. In many cases, a parent makes the diagnosis because the infant tastes salty. Trypsinogen  levels can be increased in individuals who have a single mutated copy of the  CFTR  gene (carriers) or, in rare instances, in individuals with two normal copies of the  CFTR  gene. Due to these  false positives, CF screening in newborns can be controversial.Most states and countries do not screen for CF routinely at birth. Therefore, most individuals are diagnosed after symptoms (e. g. sinopulmonary disease and GI manifestations) prompt an evaluation for cystic fibrosis. The most commonly used form of testing is the sweat test. Sweat-testing involves application of a medication that stimulates sweating (pilocarpine). To deliver the medication through the skin, iontophoresis  is used to, whereby one  electrode  is placed onto the applied medication and an electric current  is passed to a separate electrode on the skin.The resultant sweat is then collected on filter paper or in a capi llary tube and analyzed for abnormal amounts of  sodium  and  chloride. People with CF have increased amounts of sodium and chloride in their sweat. In contrast, people with CF have less thiocyanate and  hypothiocyanite  in their saliva and mucus. CF can also be diagnosed by identification of mutations in the CFTR gene. People with CF may be listed in a  disease registry  that allows researchers and doctors to track health results and identify candidates for  clinical trials. PrenatalCouples who are pregnant or planning a pregnancy can have themselves tested for the CFTR gene mutations to determine the risk that their child will be born with cystic fibrosis. Testing is typically performed first on one or both parents and, if the risk of CF is high, testing on the  fetus  is performed. The  American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists  (ACOG) recommends testing for couples who have a personal or close family history of CF, and they recommend that carrie r testing be offered to all Caucasian couples and be made available to couples of other ethnic backgrounds.Because development of CF in the fetus requires each parent to pass on a mutated copy of the CFTR gene and because CF testing is expensive, testing is often performed initially on one parent. If testing shows that parent is a CFTR gene mutation carrier, the other parent is tested to calculate the risk that their children will have CF. CF can result from more than a thousand different mutations, and as of 2006 it is not possible to test for each one. Testing analyzes the blood for the most common mutations such as ? F508—most commercially available tests look for 32 or fewer different mutations.If a family has a known uncommon mutation, specific screening for that mutation can be performed. Because not all known mutations are found on current tests, a negative screen does not guarantee that a child will not have CF. During pregnancy, testing can be performed on the  pla centa  (chorionic villus sampling) or the fluid around the fetus (amniocentesis). However,  chorionic villus sampling  has a risk of fetal death of 1 in 100 and amniocentesis of 1 in 200;  a recent study has indicated this may be much lower, approximately 1 in 1,600.Economically, for carrier couples of cystic fibrosis, when comparing pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) with natural conception (NC) followed by prenatal testing and abortion of affected pregnancies, PGD provides net economic benefits up to a maternal age of approximately 40 years, after which NC, prenatal testing and abortion has higher economic benefit. ————————————————- Management While there are no cures for cystic fibrosis there are several treatment methods. The management of cystic fibrosis has improved significantly over the past 70 years.While infants born with cystic fibrosis 70 years ag o would have been unlikely to live beyond their first year, infants today are likely to live well into adulthood. Recent advances in the treatment of cystic fibrosis have meant that an individual with cystic fibrosis can live a fuller life less encumbered by their condition. The cornerstones of management are proactive treatment of  airway infection, and encouragement of good nutrition and an active lifestyle. Management of cystic fibrosis continues throughout a patient's life, and is aimed at maximizing organ function, and therefore quality of life.At best, current treatments delay the decline in organ function. Because of the wide variation in disease symptoms treatment typically occurs at specialist multidisciplinary centers, and is tailored to the individual. Targets for therapy are the  lungs,  gastrointestinal tract  (including pancreatic enzyme supplements), the  reproductive organs  (including (ART) and psychological support. The most consistent aspect of therapy in cystic fibrosis is limiting and treating the lung damage caused by thick mucus and infection. Intravenous,  inhaled, and oral antibiotics are used to treat chronic and acute infections.Mechanical devices and inhalation medications are used to alter and clear the thickened mucus. These therapies, while effective, can be extremely time-consuming for the patient. One of the most important battles that CF patients face is finding the time to comply with prescribed treatments while balancing a normal life. In addition, therapies such as  transplantation  and  gene therapy  aim to cure some of the effects of cystic fibrosis. Gene therapy aims to introduce normal CFTR to airway. Theoretically this process should be simple as the airway is easily accessible and there is only a single gene defect to correct.There are two CFTR gene introduction mechanisms involved, the first use of a viral vector (adenovirus, adeno-associated virus or retro virus) and secondly the use of  lipo some. However there are some problems associated with these methods involving efficiency (liposomes insufficient protein) and delivery (virus provokes an immune response). Antibiotics Many CF patients are on one or more  antibiotics  at all times, even when healthy, to  prophylactically  suppress infection. Antibiotics are absolutely necessary whenever pneumonia is suspected or there has been a noticeable decline in lung function, and are usually chosen based on the results of a putum analysis and the patient's past response. This prolonged therapy often necessitates hospitalization and insertion of a more permanent  IV  such as a  peripherally inserted central catheter  (PICC line) or  Port-a-Cath. Inhaled therapy with antibiotics such as tobramycin,  colistin, and  aztreonam  is often given for months at a time to improve lung function by impeding the growth of colonized bacteria. Oral antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin or  azithromycin  are given to hel p prevent infection or to control ongoing infection. The  aminoglycoside  antibiotics (e. g. obramycin) with long-term use can cause  several side effects such as hearing loss, damaging the  balance system  present in the  inner ear  and producing many chronic kidney problems  . To prevent these  side-effects, the amount of antibiotics in the blood are routinely measured and adjusted accordingly. Other treatments for lung disease Several mechanical techniques are used to dislodge sputum and encourage its expectoration. In the hospital setting, chest physiotherapy (CPT) is utilized; a respiratory therapist percusses an individual's chest with his or her hands several times a day, to loosen up secretions.Devices that recreate this percussive therapy include the  ThAIRapy Vest  and the  intrapulmonary percussive ventilator  (IPV). Newer methods such as  Biphasic Cuirass Ventilation, and associated clearance mode available in such devices, integrate a cough a ssistance phase, as well as a vibration phase for dislodging secretions. These are portable and adapted for home use. Aerosolized medications that help loosen secretions include  dornase alfa  and  hypertonic  saline. Dornase is a  recombinant  human deoxyribonuclease, which breaks down DNA in the  sputum, thus decreasing its  viscosity.Denufosol  is an investigational drug that opens an alternative chloride channel, helping to liquefy mucus. As lung disease worsens, mechanical breathing support may become necessary. Individuals with CF may need to wear special masks at night that help push air into their lungs. These machines, known as  bi-level positive airway pressure  (BiPAP) ventilators, help prevent low blood oxygen levels during sleep. BiPAP may also be used during physical therapy to improve sputum clearance. During severe illness, a  tube  may be placed in the throat (a procedure known as a  tracheostomy) to enable breathing supported by a  ven tilator.For children living with CF, preliminary studies show pediatric massage therapy may improve patients and their families’ quality of life, though more rigorous studies must be done. Transplantation Lung transplantation  often becomes necessary for individuals with cystic fibrosis as lung function ceases and  exercise tolerance  declines. Although single lung transplantation is possible in other diseases, individuals with CF must have both lungs replaced because the remaining lung might contain bacteria that could infect the transplanted lung.A pancreatic or liver transplant may be performed at the same time in order to alleviate liver disease and/or diabetes. Lung transplantation is considered when lung function declines to the point where assistance from mechanical devices is required or patient survival is threatened. Other aspects Intracytoplasmic sperm injection can be used to provide fertility for men with cystic. .fibrosis Intracytoplasmic sperm injection c an be used to provide fertility for men with cystic. .fibrosis New-borns with intestinal obstruction typically require surgery, whereas adults with  distal intestinal obstruction syndrome typically do not.Treatment of pancreatic insufficiency by replacement of missing digestive enzymes allows the duodenum to properly absorb nutrients and vitamins that would otherwise be lost in the faeces. So far, no large-scale research involving the incidence of  atherosclerosis  and  coronary heart disease  in adults with cystic fibrosis has been conducted. This is likely due to the fact that the vast majority of people with cystic fibrosis do not live long enough to develop clinically significant atherosclerosis or coronary heart disease.Diabetes  is the most common non-pulmonary complication of CF. It mixes features of  type 1and  type 2  diabetes, and is recognized as a distinct entity,  cystic fibrosis-related diabetes (CFRD). While oral  anti-diabetic drugs  are somet imes used, the only recommended treatment is the use of  insulin  injections or an  insulin pump,  and unlike in type 1 and 2 diabetes, dietary restrictions are not recommended. Development of  osteoporosis  can be prevented by increased intake of vitamin D and  calcium, and can be treated by  bisphosphonates, although  adverse effects  can be an issue.Poor growth may be avoided by insertion of a  feeding tube  for increasing  calories  through supplemental feeds or by administration of injected  growth hormone. Sinus infections are treated by prolonged courses of antibiotics. The development of nasal polyps or other chronic changes within the nasal passages may severely limit airflow through the nose, and over time reduce the patient's sense of smell. Sinus surgery is often used to alleviate nasal obstruction and to limit further infections. Nasal steroids such as  fluticasone  are used to decrease nasal inflammation.Female infertility may be overc ome by  assisted reproduction  technology (ART) with the help of embryo transfer  techniques. Male infertility caused by absence of the  vas deferens  may be overcome with  testicular sperm extraction  (TEST), collecting sperm cells directly from the testicles. If the collected sample contains too few sperm cells to likely have a spontaneous  fertilization,  intracytoplasmic sperm injection  can be performed. Third party reproduction  is also a possibility for women with CF. ————————————————- PrognosisThe prognosis for cystic fibrosis has improved due to earlier diagnosis through screening, better treatment and access to health care. In 1959, the median age of survival of children with cystic fibrosis in the United States was six months. In 2008, survival averaged 37. 4 years. In Canada, median survival increased from 24 years in 1982 to 47. 7 in 2007 . Of those with cystic fibrosis who are more than 18 years old as of 2009; 92% had graduated from  high school, 67% had at least some college education, 15% were disabled and 9% were unemployed, 56% were single and 39% were married or living with a partner.In Russia  the overall median age of patients is 25, which is caused by the absence or high cost of medication and the fact that lung transplantation is not performed. Quality of life Chronic illnesses can be very difficult to manage. Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a chronic illness that affects the â€Å"digestive and respiratory tracts resulting in generalized malnutrition and chronic respiratory infections†. The thick secretions clog the airways in the lungs, which often cause inflammation and severe lung infections. Therefore, mucus makes it challenging to breathe.If it is compromised, it affects the quality of life of someone with CF, and their ability to complete such tasks as everyday chores. It is important for CF pati ents to understand the detrimental relationship that chronic illnesses place on the quality of life. Havermans and colleagues (2006) have shown that young outpatients with CF that have participated in the CFQ-R (Cystic Fibrosis Questionnaire-Revised) â€Å"rated some QOL domains higher than did their parents†. Consequently, outpatients with CF have a more positive outlook for themselves.Furthermore, there are many ways to improve the QOL in CF patients. Exercise is promoted to increase lung function. The fact of integrating an exercise regimen into the CF patient’s daily routine can significantly improve the quality of life. There is no definitive cure for Cystic Fibrosis. However, there are diverse medications used such as, mucolytics, bronchodilators, steroids and antibiotics that have the purpose of loosening mucus, expanding airways, decreasing inflammation and fighting lung infections. ————————— Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€-Epidemiology Mutation| Frequency worldwide| ?F508| 66%–70%| G542X| 2. 4%| G551D| 1. 6%| N1303K| 1. 3%| W1282X| 1. 2%| All others| 27. 5%| Cystic fibrosis is the most common life-limiting autosomal recessive disease among people of  Caucasian heritage. In the United States, approximately 30,000 individuals have CF; most are diagnosed by six months of age. In  Canada, there are approximately 3,500 people with CF. Approximately 1 in 25 people of European descent, and one in 30 of Caucasian Americans, is a carrier of a cystic fibrosis mutation.Although CF is less common in these groups, approximately 1 in 46  Hispanics, 1 in 65  Africans  and 1 in 90 Asians  carry at least one abnormal CFTR gene. Ireland has the world's highest incidence of cystic fibrosis, at 1:1353. Although technically a  rare disease, cystic fibrosis is ranked as one of the most widespread life-shortening genetic diseases. It is most common among nations in the Western world. An exception is  Finland, where only one in 80 people carry a CF mutation. In the United States, 1 in 4,000 children are born with CF. In 1997, about 1 in 3,300 Caucasian children in the United States was born with cystic fibrosis.In contrast, only 1 in 15,000 African American children suffered from cystic fibrosis, and in Asian Americans the rate was even lower at 1 in 32,000. Cystic fibrosis is diagnosed in males and females equally. For reasons that remain unclear, data has shown that males tend to have a longer  life expectancy  than females,  however recent studies suggest this gender gap may no longer exist perhaps due to improvements in health care facilities,  while a recent study from Ireland identified a link between the female hormone, estrogen and worse outcomes in CF.The distribution of CF alleles varies among populations. The frequency of ? F508 carriers has been estimated at 1:200 in northern Sweden, 1:143 in Lithuanians, and 1 :38 in Denmark. No ? F508 carriers were found among 171  Finns  and 151  Saami people. ?F508 does occur in Finland, but it is a minority allele there. Cystic fibrosis is known to occur in only 20 families (pedigrees) in Finland. Hypotheses about prevalence The  ? F508  mutation is estimated to be up to 52,000 years old. Numerous hypotheses have been advanced as to why such a lethal mutation has persisted and spread in the human population.Other common autosomal recessive diseases such as  sickle-cell anemia have been found to protect carriers from other diseases, a concept known as  heterozygote advantage. Resistances to the following have all been proposed as possible sources of heterozygote advantage: * Cholera: With the finding and discovery that  cholera toxin  requires normal host CFTR proteins to function properly, it was hypothesized that carriers of mutant CFTR genes benefited from resistance to cholera and other causes of diarrhea. Further studies have not confirmed this hypothesis. Typhoid: Normal CFTR proteins are also required essentially for the entry of  Salmonella typhi  into cells,  suggesting that carriers of the mutant CFTR genes might be resistant to  typhoid fever. No  in vivo  study has yet confirmed this. In both cases, the low level of cystic fibrosis outside of Europe, in places where both cholera and typhoid fever are  endemic, is not immediately explicable. * Diarrhea: It has also been hypothesized that the prevalence of CF in Europe might be connected with the development of cattle domestication. In this hypothesis, carriers of a ingle mutant CFTR chromosome had some protection from diarrhea caused by lactose intolerance, prior to the appearance of the mutations that created lactose tolerance. * Tuberculosis: Another explanation is that carriers of the gene could have some resistance to TB. ——————————————à ¢â‚¬â€Ã¢â‚¬â€- History It is supposed that CF appeared about 3,000 BC because of migration of peoples, gene mutations, and new conditions in nourishment. Although the entire clinical spectrum of CF was not recognized until the 1930s, certain aspects of CF were identified much earlier.Indeed, literature  from Germany and Switzerland in the 18th century warned  Wehe dem Kind, das beim Ku? auf die Stirn salzig schmekt, er ist verhext und muss bald sterbeor â€Å"Woe to the child who tastes salty from a kiss on the brow, for he is cursed and soon must die,† recognizing the association between the salt loss in CF and illness. Dorothy Hansine Andersen Dorothy Hansine Andersen In the 19th century,  Carl von Rokitansky  described a case of fetal death with  meconium peritonitis, a complication of meconium ileus associated with cystic fibrosis.Meconium ileus was first described in 1905 by  Karl Landsteiner. In 1936,  Guido Fanconi  published a paper describing a conn ecting link between  celiac disease, cystic fibrosis of the pancreas, and bronchiectasis. In 1938  Dorothy Hansine Andersen  published an article, â€Å"Cystic Fibrosis of the Pancreas and Its Relation to Celiac Disease: a Clinical and Pathological Study,† in the  American Journal of Diseases of Children. She was the first to describe the characteristic cystic fibrosis of the pancreas and to correlate it with the lung and intestinal disease prominent in CF.She also first hypothesized that CF was a recessive disease and first used pancreatic enzyme replacement to treat affected children. In 1952 Paul di Sant' Agnese discovered abnormalities in  sweat  electrolytes; a  sweat test  was developed and improved over the next decade. The first linkage between CF and another marker (Paroxonase) was found in 1985, indicating that only one locus exists for CF  Hans Eiberg. In 1988 the first mutation for CF,  ? F508  was discovered by  Francis Collins,  Lap-Che e Tsui  and  John R. Riordan  on the seventh chromosome.Subsequent research has found over 1,000 different mutations that cause CF. Because mutations in the CFTR gene are typically small,  classical genetics  techniques had been unable to accurately pinpoint the mutated gene. Using protein markers,  gene-linkage  studies were able to map the mutation to chromosome 7. Chromosome-walking and  -jumping  techniques were then used to identify and  sequence  the gene. In 1989 Lap-Chee Tsui led a team of researchers at the Hospital for Sick Children  in  Toronto  that discovered the gene responsible for CF.Cystic fibrosis represents the first genetic disorder elucidated strictly by the process of  reverse genetics. ————————————————- Research Gene therapy Gene therapy  has been explored as a potential cure for cystic fibrosis. Ideally, gene therapy places a normal copy of the  CFTR gene into affected cells. Transferring the normal CFTR gene into the affected epithelium cells would result in the production of functional CFTR in all target cells, without adverse reactions or an inflammation response.Studies have shown that to prevent the lung manifestations of cystic fibrosis, only 5–10% the normal amount of CFTR  gene expression  is needed. Multiple approaches have been tested for gene transfer, such as liposomes and viral vectors in animal models and clinical trials. However, both methods were found to be relatively inefficient treatment options. The main reason is that very few cells take up the vector and express the gene, so the treatment has little effect. Additionally, problems have been noted in cDNA recombination, such that the gene introduced by the treatment is rendered unusable.With the help of the  Cystic Fibrosis Trust, which has a league of highly professional gene therapists, both somatic and Adeno -associated viral vector have made advances. The  Adenoviridae, or more commonly known as the cold virus, is genetically altered, allowing the CFTR gene to enter lung cells. Small molecules A number of  small molecules  that aim at compensating various mutations of the CFTR gene are under development. One approach is to develop drugs that get the ribosome to overcome the  stop codon  and synthesize a full-length CFTR protein.About 10% of CF results from a premature stop codon in the DNA, leading to early termination of protein synthesis and truncated proteins. These drugs target nonsense mutations  such as G542X, which consists of the amino acid  glycine  in position 542 being replaced by a stop codon. Aminoglycoside antibiotics interfere with DNA synthesis and error-correction. In some cases, they can cause the cell to overcome the stop codon, insert a random amino acid, and express a full-length protein.The aminoglycoside  gentamicin  has been used to treat lun g cells from CF patients in the laboratory to induce the cells to grow full-length proteins. Another drug targeting nonsense mutations is  ataluren, which is undergoing Phase III clinical trials as of October 2011. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. BIOLOGY TEXTBOOK FOR CLASS – XII (NCERT) 2. TRUEMAN’S BIOLOGY FOR CLASS – XII 3. SCIENCE REPORTER (September, 2007) 4. THE NEWYORK TIMES (December 22, 2009) 5. www. google. co. in/cysticfibrosis 6. en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis 7. www. ncbi. nlm. nih. gov 8. www. cff. org/ 9. www. cysticfibrosis. com/ 10. www. cftrust. org. uk/

Human Resources Information System (Hris) Essay

There are many different purposes, functions and components to HRIS software systems. Technology has been constantly expanding, and with all the new possibilities, companies are able to use these software systems to help their HR departments perform their jobs faster and easier. Large businesses want to make the most amount of money, by spending the least amount possible; with HRIS they are able to realistically achieve this goal. Businesses need to grow and expand or they will not succeed. The main purpose of an HRIS is so companies can use it internally to keep track of the store’s budget, payroll and employee information more accurately and efficiently. Many large human resource organizations develop or buy these software systems to improve their HR operations while trying to keep the total operating costs low. The more a business can save on wages, the more it can spend on the company internally, to invest in improving the other departments as well. Some companies use HRIS systems to help them communicate worldwide; companies can have one business with several stores around the world that speak different languages. HRIS software systems main function is to help HR personnel handle and process large quantities of information that is tracked and updated automatically; this allows HR staff to focus on personal interaction with employees, instead of dedicating the majority of their time to paperwork. The key functions of an HRIS software system are to create and maintain employee record, adhere to legal compliance, forecasting for future planning, strategic alignment and enhanced decision making (Dessler, 2011, pg 61). The other functions that an HRIS system can perform include items such as control, effectiveness, flexibility, efficiency, responsiveness, accuracy, ease of use, automation, timeliness and process improvement (HR Systems Strategies Inc, n.d., pg. 1). The companies that are worldwide can use this to communicate the same thing to other countries with the HRIS system. HRIS software systems can have many components to it; however, not all companies require the same components. The general components that most large HR organizations have include a database to store employee information, time and labour management to track employee attendance, payroll to ensure employees are paid correctly and legally, benefits to ensure employees have appropriate benefits and retirement investments, recruitment to help build the company’s workforce, training for new or promoted employees, organization charting and scheduling for employees shifts and breaks and an employee interface for employees to review personal information (Jennifer, n.d., pg. 1)(Dessler, 2011, pg 58). Some companies can develop their software systems to be capable of performing things such as a salary analysis, budget planning, job design and performance reviews (Cezanne, n.d., pg. 1). The cost of an HRIS software system can depend on many factors, such as how complex or simple it is and if it was specialized for your company or if it is a general system. Large companies such as fortune 500 can run systems around the tens of millions of dollars, but smaller companies can run systems for less than a thousand dollars (HRIS, HRMS and HR, n.d., pg. 1). The reality is that there are many different HRIS software systems for any price range, but however much you invest into it, is how much you will get out. The HRIS system that a company chooses should not be based on how complex the system is, but how beneficial the system will be to help improve the businesses HR department. The impact of technology has changed the role of HR in many different aspects. The most obvious positive effect of using technology in an HR department is the increase of accuracy and efficiency, which in turn reduces costs and improves results within the company. The use of technology makes it able for HR to dedicate less time to paperwork and more time to employee interaction (Hall, 2012, pg. 1). Works Cited â€Å"Cezanne.† Cezanne. Cezanne Software Limited, n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . Dessler, Gary , and Nina D. Cole. â€Å"Human Resources Management and Technology.† Human Resources Management in Canada. 11th Canadian Edition ed. Toronto: Pearsons Canada, 2011. 58,59,61,62, 63. Print. â€Å"HR Systems Strategies Inc | HRIS Software Canada / US.† HR Systems Strategies Inc | HRIS Software Canada / US. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . â€Å"HRIS, HRMS and HR software FAQà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s.† Free HRIS HRMS and HR Software Buyers Guide. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . Hall, James. â€Å"Impact of technology on human resource management | Importance of Technology.† Importance of Technology. N.p., 1 Mar. 2012. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. . Jennifer, Kristin. â€Å"The Components of an HRIS System | eHow.com.† eHow | How to Videos, Articles & More – Discover the expert in you. | eHow.com. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Sept. 2012. .

No Topic Example

No Topic Example No Topic – Coursework Example I totally agree with the that MIS becomes very vital to any business MIS as a is very vital forany business student. It will give the business student the background they need to understand, assess, evaluate, and even apply emerging business information systems technology. The key highlight of the author’s convincing opinion is that MIS course to any business school student is the epitome of expansion of business information and empowering any student in handling individual research and enhance their marketability in the job market in the future. The World has become very dynamic and competitive and one would agree with the author the increased international competition due to rapid technological transformation that place the spotlight on the business skills or preparation of the student to the job market, specifically the ability of the business to adapt to dynamic technological environment. This makes MIS thus becomes very relevant to any business student in acquiring skill s necessary in this the nature of organizations.Additionally, through critical analysis, the future business professionals require to be capable to understand, assess, analysis, and apply the dynamic and emerging business information technology to business. This makes MIS class the most important class an undergraduate business student will take. A student would thus need the knowledge of MIS as a course to attain the required skills. MIS majors are uniquely able to understand how information technology may contribute to an industry success, and how to create and apply business information technology focused business solutions.Work citedKroenke, David. "Chapter 1: The Importance of MIS."Â  Using MIS. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2011. 1-23. Print

A Brief History of the African Country of Kenya

A Brief History of the African Country of Kenya Fossils found in East Africa suggest that protohumans roamed the area more than 20 million years ago. Recent finds near Kenyas Lake Turkana indicate that hominids lived in  the area  2.6 million years ago. Cushitic-speaking people from northern Africa moved into the area that is now Kenya beginning around 2000 BC. Arab traders began frequenting the Kenya coast around the first century AD. Kenyas proximity to the Arabian Peninsula invited colonization, and Arab and Persian settlements sprouted along the coast by the eighth century. During the first millennium AD, Nilotic and Bantu peoples moved into the region, and the latter now comprises three-quarters of Kenyas population. The Europeans Arrive The Swahili language, a mixture of Bantu and Arabic, developed as a lingua franca for trade between the different peoples. Arab dominance on the coast was eclipsed by the arrival in 1498 of the Portuguese, who gave way in turn to Islamic control under the Imam of Oman in the 1600s. The United Kingdom established its influence in the 19th century. The colonial history of Kenya dates from the Berlin Conference of 1885 when the European powers first partitioned East Africa into spheres of influence. In 1895, the U.K. Government established the East African Protectorate and, soon after, opened the fertile highlands to white settlers. The settlers were allowed a voice in government even before it was officially made a U.K. colony in 1920, but Africans were prohibited from direct political participation until 1944. The Mau Mau  Resist Colonialism From October 1952 to December 1959, Kenya was under a state of emergency arising from the Mau Mau rebellion against British colonial rule. During this period, African participation in the political process increased rapidly. Kenya Achieves Independence The first direct elections for Africans to the Legislative Council took place in 1957. Kenya became independent on December 12, 1963, and the next year joined the Commonwealth. Jomo Kenyatta, a member of the large Kikuyu ethnic group and head of the Kenya African National Union (KANU), became Kenyas first President. The minority party, Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU), representing a coalition of small ethnic groups, dissolved itself voluntarily in 1964 and joined KANU. The Road to Kenyattas One-Party State A small but significant leftist opposition party, the Kenya Peoples Union (KPU), was formed in 1966, led by Jaramogi Oginga Odinga, a former Vice President, and Luo elder. The KPU was banned shortly after and its leader detained. No new opposition parties were formed after 1969, and KANU became the sole political party. At Kenyattas death in August 1978, Vice President Daniel Arap Moi became President. A New Democracy in Kenya In June 1982, the National Assembly amended the constitution, making Kenya officially a one-party state, and parliamentary elections were held in September 1983. The 1988 elections reinforced the one-party system. However, in December 1991, Parliament repealed the one-party section of the constitution. By early 1992, several new parties had formed, and multiparty elections were held in December 1992. Because of divisions in the opposition, however, Moi was reelected for another 5-year term, and his KANU party retained a majority of the legislature. Parliamentary reforms in November 1997 expanded political rights, and the number of political parties grew rapidly. Again because of a divided opposition, Moi won re-election as President in the December 1997 elections. KANU won 113 out of 222 parliamentary seats, but, because of defections, had to depend on the support of minor parties to forge a working majority.In October 2002, a coalition of opposition parties joined forces with a fact ion which broke away from KANU to form the National Rainbow Coalition (NARC). In December 2002, the NARC candidate, Mwai Kibaki, was elected the country’s third President. President Kibaki received 62% of the vote, and NARC also won 59% of the parliamentary seats. Source US Department of State Background Notes.

Capital Punishment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Capital Punishment - Essay Example Capital punishment raises many issues concerning morality, where some people support it claiming that it is morally justified while others do not (BBC 2013). This paper will contend to show the reasons why capital punishment should be allowed based on the evidence given in the paper. Capital punishment is a legal process approved by a country, which permits for the termination of a criminal’s life, especially one who has committed murder. Capital punishment has been abolished in many countries including the United Kingdom. The United States of America is the only Western country that has not abolished capital punishment. The main questions raised about capital punishment concern the morality and whether the act deters crime. It is also debated that the act could possibly bring more good than harm, therefore, bringing an intense debate between its supporters and those who oppose (Janet and Oxley 2). Capital punishment is only utilised by the state, therefore, making it use by n on-state organisations like the Al shabaab, illegal. It is exclusively utilised as a penalty for especially heinous crimes such as murder, adultery, fraud, treason, and rape depending on the country. Many people find capital punishment morally unjustifiable but in the event of an atrocity towards their families, they support the process. Many countries have decided to abolish capital punishment due to the extended network of activists and lobby groups, who over the years have seen to it that capital punishment is abolished. The places which have not ceded to the demands of these activists are some Muslim countries like Iran and Iraq and some states of the United States of America. The United Nations does not support capital punishment as it stands for an individual’s right to life. Countries that have not succumbed to International pressure to ban capital punishment insist that the act is non-discriminatively and unarbitrary, therefore, helps keep everyone off some crimes due to its deterring effect (Dezhbakhsh and Shepherd 512). There are many people who consider capital punishment to be morally impermissible. Some debate that it is unconstitutional, barbaric and cruel. They claim to oppose capital punishment because it violates the human right to life, which is a fundamental right. They believe that human life is so important such that even the murderers’ lives should not be destroyed even after conducting heinous atrocities. Other people oppose capital punishment on the grounds that it the justice system is at time marred by mistakes, therefore, accusing some people falsely, which leads to the loss of innocent lives. They claim that the damage that is committed upon such individuals and their families would be irreversible, thus opposing capital punishment (BBC 2013). There are people who are opposed to capital punishment based on the theory that it reflects arbitrariness and discrimination. The antagonists contend that there is evidence parti cularly in America, where those charged with killing white people are four times more likely to be sentenced to capital punishment compared to those people who are charged with killing non-white people. This is evidence of racial discrimination and it is used to oppose the need for capital punishment in a country (Sunstein and Vermeule 2). Vengeance and retribution have been viewed as morally unjustifiable acts that cannot be used to support capital punishment. This is particularly common in religions where they do not justify the taking of

Why MBA Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Why MBA - Essay Example ears by banking on my current professional knowledge and experience in a life insurance company, I believe that an ideal business management requires an MBA qualification. Owing to my priority being a change of career from somebody else’s employee to being a self-employed individual with knowledge in a number of fields, an MBA degree will equip me with the necessary skills to run the business stress-free. This is especially true considering the fact that I will have the opportunity to acquire general business and management knowledge that can come in handy in almost any industry. I will also get the opportunity to specialize in a certain area of expertise in business, for example accounting, marketing, human resource management or finance (Peterson 334). Specializing in a particular area will hone my skills in that field upon graduation, irrespective of my undergraduate degree or hitherto work experience. In addition, because I am interested in taking over a leadership role in running my own business, my acquisition of an MBA degree will make it easier for me to assume and retain effective leadership roles. This is especially true considering that an MBA course incorporates leadership studies, business strategies, and general management concepts that are applicable to virtually any leadership position in an organization. The burning ambition in learning business I have can be traced to my strong belief that the most financially successful persons in the planet are in business. However, their success does not just come on a silver platter; they must have enjoyed the subject in one way or another; felt like they could expand their knowledge and skills, and transferred the theories learned in class into a real business environment in order to achieve the highest turnaround for their businesses. This apparently makes education, and an MBA for that matter, a worthy goal to pursue for a successful career in business, especially in the current challenging world of