Jungian Psychology Theory

Jungian Psychology Theory Carl Jung was a psychologist and scholar who pioneered the unique field of analytical psychology. The field is characterized by complex and obscure theories that cover various intricate concepts, such as spirituality and the symbolic dynamics of personality. Many of Jungs theories mirror the abstraction of the concepts that they try to explain. Despite its ambiguity, Jungian therapy nevertheless presents the field of psychology with valuable ideas about the human personality, as well as innovative implications for therapy. It is highly comprehensive, addressing and conceptualizing a great diversity of concepts, such as creativity, religion, spirituality, and personality. In addition, Jungian therapy can be successfully compared to other forms of therapy. Its psychoanalytic background gives it many connections to the theories of classical psychoanalysis and Freudian therapy, while its goals and liberal approach to therapy makes it much more similar to humanistic therapy. However, seve ral questions arise when analyzing the applicability of Jungian theory to the scientific field of psychology and psychotherapy. While his complex concepts allow his theories to explore the hidden depths of the human mind, his lack of precise operational definitions for those concepts makes it difficult for any of his theories to be empirically tested. Similarly, several of his concepts are very vague and offer more questions than answers. Nevertheless, despite an obvious absence of a scientific base for his theories, the effect Jung has had on the field of psychology and on other fields is undeniable. His ideas led therapists to look to fields such as art and music in order to incorporate new and creative methods into therapy that, while more aesthetic than scientific, proved to be very effective. Among these methods are dream interpretation, music therapy, and art therapy. It is important, however, to note that Jungian psychology is not the right approach for all therapists and clients. Only a specific group of people would find Jungs theories appealing and useful. Therefore, its lack of universality can be seen as another important issue. That being said, much more can still be done to test and evaluate the full use of Jungian theory in psychology. Individuation Overall, Jungian theory holds a positive view of people, believing in that they have the inherent potential to stand out as unique individuals. However, the process of individuation is complicated, making a person become aware of and reconcile conflicts with the unconscious parts of his personality before he can truly individualize. Individuation is the means through which people can achieve self-actualization, or self realization. If people are not able to individualize, then they can never reach self-actualization, which is the ultimate goal of Jungian therapy and, according to Jung, it is the ultimate goal of living (Harris, 1996). The process of individuation is very complex and involves individuals integrating various concepts into their lives that may be beyond their current, conscious understanding of the world. In therapy, there could be two levels, one that is shallow and one that is deeper. In the first one, the client can experience a problem, begin to understand it, and then learn how to cope with it or to solve it (Harris, 1996). However, in the second level, the clients look beyond their obvious problems and begin to explore hidden parts of their psyche so that they may not only find a solution to their problem, but so they could also go through a whole transformation process, in which they undergo dramatic changes that allow them to gain deeper meanings about what distinguishes them from other people (Harris). Analytical psychotherapy attempts to create a link between the conscious and unconscious so that concepts that seem illogical could become understandable and interpretable. Structure of the Psyche The Jungian view of personality is based on understanding the structure of the psyche. The psyche is what Jung believed to be the complete and total personality of an individual. It is the vessel of a continuous flow of energy that moves between the consciousness and the unconsciousness. This energy manifests itself in a persons thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. The psyche itself consists of many subsystems that are oppositional, yet very interdependent with one another. Those interdependent systems can be grouped into the conscious, the personal unconscious, and the collective unconscious. The conscious consists of perceptions that an individual is constantly aware of, such as immediate memories, thoughts, and feelings. (Jung, 1971a). At the center of the conscious is the ego, which is the conscious main reference point and the psyches unifying element. It consists of immediate thoughts, feelings, memories, and other experiences. In addition, it creates the framework for peoples view themselves and their identity (Jung, 1971b). Covering the ego is the persona, which is the public image one allows other people to see. It is the conscious component of the self usually developed in childhood that manifests itself in everyday roles at work, school, and other social institutions. Likewise, it reconciles the conflict between personal desires and the requirements of society, thus making it a mediator (Jung, 1971a). In terms of the goal of individuation, the persona is what hinders an individuals journey towards that goal. The more one focuses and acts on the social self, the less one can have access to the inner world and thus moves further from individuation and self-actualization. Similarly, disregarding the persona by over-focusing on internal experiences leads to social conflicts and limited awareness of the outside world (Jung, 1959a). Lying deeper than the conscious is the personal unconscious, which is made up of material that is repressed or forgotten but for the most part it can be easily retrieved, usually with the help of therapy. Material in the personal unconscious is unique to the individual (Jung, 1971a). Just as the ego is the center of the conscious, the self is the center of the personal unconscious. The self regulates and stabilizes the personality, and it is also the mediator between the conscious, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious (Jung, 1959b). The self is also dependent on the other systems of personality, as it cannot until begin to develop until other systems become fully developed, which usually happen around middle age. Its development begins when individual starts to become more spiritual and philosophical, which is a sign of the blending of the conscious and the unconscious. The self is surrounded by the shadow, anima/animus, and a various complexes, the details of which will be discussed after a brief description of the collective unconscious (Jung, 1959a). The collective unconscious is the deepest part of the psyche and is perhaps Jungs most complex and most misunderstood concept. Unlike the personal unconscious, which consists of content that was once in the conscious but then forgotten, content in the collective unconscious never existed in the conscious nor did it even contain any personal, individual experiences. (Jung, 1971c). Likewise, it was never acquired by the individual; rather it was inherited from primordial generations. It consists of symbolic material, such as complexes and archetypes. Jungs basis for the idea of the collective unconscious is based in the belief that all individuals possess generic images, myths, and symbols that are biologically passed down through generations and that are partially responsible for guiding how people think, feel, and act. The collective unconscious includes concepts such as light and dark, heaven and hell, and birth and death. Though it can never be directly accessed by the conscious, t he collective unconscious nevertheless presents itself in images, visions, and/or archetypes (Jung). Archetypes and Symbols Archetypes are themes that have manifested themselves in various cultures throughout all of history. Jung (1971b) also calls them primordial images, namely because they are so ancient. Certain archetypes, such as the anima/animus and the shadow, have developed so fully that they now stand as separate systems in the personality. They are supported by common patterns or universal motifs, making up the fundamental content of tales, myths, and legends. They begin to surface usually in the form of dreams and visions (Harris, 1996). The anima/animus is the masculine and feminine archetype, a concept that is similar to the idea of the ying and the yang. Anima represents the feminine qualities in men, and animus represents the masculine qualities in women, with the qualities being those that are stereotypically associated with each sex. An example would the anima emerging as sensitivity in males and the animus emerging as aggression in females. Jung (1971b) believed that the purpose of the a nima/animus is that it allows men and women to understand and properly interact with one other. This archetype came from many centuries of males and females living together and taking on each others personalities (Jung, 1951b). The shadow, which was mentioned before, is a part of both the personal and the collective unconscious. It is the internal content that is usually repressed to its socially unacceptable and uncivil nature. The shadow represents the darker and more evil aspects of the personality that people usually deny even exist because of the strong opposition of society. The shadow occurs in the form of negative thoughts and actions that are rooted in animal instincts. These negativities could be aggression, sexual desire, selfishness, and any other traits and qualities that are considered evil by society. In essence, the shadow is the direct opponent of the persona, the public image. The shadow from the personal unconscious is usually more easily identifiable and manageable than the shadow from the collective unconscious, which is rooted much deeper (Jung, 1971b). In therapy, the acknowledgment and awareness of the shadow is an essential part of moving towards the resolution of conflicts and comi ng closer towards individuation. This acknowledgement, however, is by no means simple, as it comes into conflict with the socially acceptable and positive image one wishes to present to society. Consciously integrating the shadow into personality is usually the first stage of the therapeutic process (Harris, 1996). Conceptualization of Conflict Application to Psychotherapy I: Therapeutic Process As mentioned before, the main goal of Jungian therapy is to help the client come to a higher state of self-actualization, or self-realization. This is an ongoing process that the individual engages in throughout his entire life, from childhood to late adulthood, and it never fully comes to end. The concept of self-realization is more ideal than real and it is the actual process of moving towards self-realization, rather than achieving it, that should be the goal of every individual. In fact, Jung believed that full self-realization can never happen, precisely because self-realization is not real. (Harris, 1996). Sometimes, however, the process may be hindered if in childhood a person grew up in a harsh environment where the parents were unreasonably strict. When the self-actualization process is halted, certain personality dysfunctions, such as neurosis and psychosis, tend to form. When in such a state, a person does not have a balance between the subsystems of his personality. The p eople who come for therapy have either completely lost touch with their inner world or are overly focused on and preoccupied with it. The therapist must therefore help recreate the bridge between the inner and the outer worlds while still keeping them separated and preventing them from merging together (Dehing, 1992). The relationship between the therapist and the client is one element in Jungian therapy that distinguishes it from many other approaches. In Jungian therapy, the client is not viewed as someone who needs treatment and the therapist is not someone who is the curer. Rather Jungian therapists are people who help guide other people to delve into the unconscious and to create meanings in their lives (Dehing 1992). The therapists are experts because they have the knowledge of the structure and functions of the psyche, and so the therapist can teach, give support, scold, or reflect on the clients processes and experiences. However, much of Jungian therapy is dependent on an equitable relationship between client and the therapist, and in order for this relationship to exist, the therapist must abandon any feelings of superiority and authority, as well as the desire to influence the clients therapeutic process. In addition, Jung affirmed that the therapists should be just as equally involved in their own self-realization process as their clients (Dehing). The therapy process itself consists of four stages. During the confession stage, the client acknowledges his problems and limitations. He becomes aware of both his own weaknesses and the weaknesses of humankind, to which he is unavoidably tied to. This is a cathartic process during which transference occurs, and the client begins to transfer thoughts and feelings onto the therapist, thus causing many unconscious elements to come to the surface. This content that is brought to the surface is clarified by the therapist in elucidation, the second stage, during which the client learns about the origin of his problems. In the third stage, the education stage, the clients learns to integrate the new meanings and insights he gains from therapy into his personality. In the final stage, transformation happens are a result of innovative changes and dynamics in the client-therapist relationship that go beyond the environmental realm and that create an active movement towards self-realization (H arris, 1996). Application to Psychology II: Therapeutic Techniques Overall Jung was reluctant to implement specific therapy techniques, as he felt that they would restrict clients in their process of exploration and self-realization. He did recognize, however, that assessments were necessary in order to be able to learn about the clients history and understand how past conflicts lead to maladjustments (Harris, 1996). Using psychological types was the most important technique for assessment. Jung created an outline of the major attitudes that make up a ones personality. The two most fundamental attitudes are the contrasting extroverted personality and introverted personality, with the first characterized as outgoing and social and the second characterized as introspective and shy. While everyones personality consists of a combination of the two attitudes, there is always one that is dominant and is in consciousness and one that is inferior and is in the unconsciousness. In addition to the attitudes, thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting are four major functions that also distinguish ones personality type (Jung, 1971d). The four functions are also divided into contrasting pairs, sensing with intuiting and thinking with feeling. Sensing and intuiting characterize how one experiences and perceives the world, and intuiting and thinking characterizes how one evaluates their experiences. Sensing types perceive the world by using conscious acknowledgment of what they can see, hear, smell, touch, and taste. Intuiting types perceive the world unconsciously through unexplained hunches and random moments of insight. From there, thinking allows one to understand phenomena by way of reason and logic, while feeling allows one to judge an event emotionally (Jung, 1971d). From the characteristics associated with the psychological types, later researchers created the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a 166 item inventory identifying a person as an extraverted or introverted type and as a feeling, thinking, intuitive, or sensing type (Ryckman, 2004). In addition to the using the psychological types, Jung also used word associations to assess his clients. Through the use of word associations Jung aimed to identify complexes. Clients had to give rapid responses to stimulus words by saying whatever words occurred to them. The stimulus words were chosen so as to stimulate all complexes that have been found in practice. Times were recorded between the presentation of the stimulus and the clients response. Any sort of hesitation or error that occurred was identified as the underlying conflict or complex. Upon discovering the complexes the therapist brings them into the conscious awareness of the client so they may be further explored (Ryckman, 2004). Jungian therapy also consists of various exploratory techniques. Among them the most prominent is dream interpretation. Relation to Freudian and Humanistic Psychology Because of Jungs psychoanalytic background, many comparisons can be made between his theories and the theories of his contemporary Sigmund Freud. However, when analyzing the Jungian approach to counseling and therapy, there is a much stronger parallel with the humanistic approach, especially with Gestalt therapy. Jungs theories can be compared to Freuds on concepts such as personality development, conflict, and the structure of the unconscious. In terms of personality development, both Jung and Freud stress the importance of the development of a healthy and stable self. In Freudian theory that self is the genital character and in Jungian it is the individualized character. However, unlike Freud, Jung did not believe that development could ever have a resolution. As mentioned before, the Jungian concept of personal development is characterized by a constant movement towards self-realization and the consistent balancing of the inner and the outer self. For the most part, this cannot fu lly happen until all parts of the personality become developed, which is not until adulthood. This differs greatly from Freud who believed that the larger part of an individuals personality forms in childhood. Similarly, the two differ in how they view and conceptualize conflict. For Freud, psychopathology and other dysfunctions are rooted in negative childhood and past experiences, such as abuse or neglect. In order to cope with such experiences, a person develops various defense mechanisms, the most common of which are repressions and fixations. These defense mechanisms hinder development in that they do not allow one to successfully complete all the stages of development. Jung, on the other hand, did not view the unsuccessful completion of the stages of development as the source of conflict, partially because he rejected the idea of the stages of development having completion. Conflict, in Jungian theory, comes from an internal imbalance between the subsystems of personality. Likewise, contrary to Freud, conflict is not ignited by a traumatic or painful childhood event. Rather conflict is something that is present in individuals from the very beginning and is a natural part of personali ty. The Jungian idea of conflict can be described in terms of the cosmological idea of chaos. Before the creation of the world, there was only chaos. Then in a slow process, order came to chaos and the world was able to fully form. It is the same with the individual, who starts life conflicted but then slowly is able to gain internal balance and stability. It is quite evident that the Jungian concept of the unconscious is based on Freudian theory. Both theories emphasize the immense importance of the unconscious and its affect on the individual, stating that conflicts are centered in the unconscious. In Freudian psychology the main unconscious process is the struggle between the superego and the id. In Jungian psychology, such struggles also exist, mainly in the conflict between the persona and the shadow. Likewise, both Freud and Jung divided the human mind into three levels: the conscious, preconscious (or subconscious), and unconscious in Freudian theory, and the conscious, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious in Jungian theory. Jungs personal unconscious can be equated to Freuds preconscious. Both levels are deep, but not beyond access, and both contain content that became lost to the conscious. Jungs collective unconscious is similar to Freuds unconscious in that it is beyond the reach of the conscious, but usually man ifests itself in the form of dreams and symbolic images. However, unlike the Freudian unconscious, the Jungian unconscious is not solely made up of repressed aggressions and sexual desires. It is much more complex, containing both personal repressions and archetypal ideas of the greater humanity. Jungian therapy is connected to humanistic therapy in its goals and approach to therapy, specifically the relationship between the client and the therapist. In both therapies the ideal goal is the realization and actualization of the self. In therapy, this goal is met by placing strong emphasis on awareness of experiences. Like humanistic therapy, Jungian therapy acknowledges the importance of the past, but prefers to focus on the immediate present and the impending future. Specifically, past experiences are only viewed in terms of their implications on the present and future. However, unlike the humanistic approach, Jungian therapy places more emphasis on unconscious processes and how they affect the conscious. Jungian therapy is also similar to humanistic, particularly to Gestalt, in the way it views the role of the therapist and the relationship he has with the client. Like Gestalt therapy, Jungian therapy views the therapist as being equal in position and superiority to the clien t, having expertise only in terms of having more knowledge of psychological processes. Conclusion In general, Jungian therapy and analytical psychology presents very strong and well supported ideas, even while being, at times, complex and ambiguous. The theories are solid and comprehensive, covering a wide range of psychological phenomenon. It can therefore be used alone, without the conjunction of a different form of therapy. It builds on certain pre-existing theories from classical psychoanalysis, yet offers a completely different and unique perspective to them, in addition to adding new concepts. Jungian therapy is especially unique in its strongly philosophical nature that emphasizes abstract rather concrete concepts. Such concepts include spirituality, symbolic images, and the connection between the individual, humankind, and the greater cosmos. This unique factor of Jungian therapy can be viewed as both a strength and a weakness. It is a strength in that it outlines and conceptualizes ideas that are usually limited only to philosophy, despite having such important roles in personal development. Every person at some point attempts to search for the higher and deeper meanings in life. Jungian therapy recognizes and supports this need. However, its philosophical approach is also a major weakness. One reason for this is that it lacks empirical evidence due to its abstract nature. Another reason is that the concepts are very complex and require a specific type of mentality in order to understand them. This makes it difficult for Jungian therapy to be applicable to all clients. I believe the types of clients that would probably receive the most benefit from Jungian therapy are people who can think abstractly and who are very patient. These people view the world in terms of symbols that are in constant need of interpretation. They have to be fond of constructing meanings of both their own internal experiences and the universal, macrocosmic phenomena. People with problems such as severe depression, personality disorders, and schizophrenia may be greatly helped by Jungian therapy. These are people who have lost or were not able to find greater meaning in life, thus causing them to plunge into the confusion and chaos that characterizes the mentioned disorders. Jungian therapy would be able to help find that meaning, as well as give them a strong conceptualization of their experiences. However, clients who prefer a more concrete and direct approach to therapy would most likely be very frustrated with a Jungian therapist and would probably not be aided by the pro cess. If anything, their condition may only worsen from being overly confused and frustrated. Clients with OCD, phobias, and other anxiety disorders should probably be treated with a different therapeutic approach, as Jungian therapy may not be the most appropriate technique for them. Therefore a therapist must be very careful when choosing to use the Jungian approach. The therapist should first be able to assess the clients mentality and determine whether Jungian therapy would be harmful or beneficial.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease :: Crohns Disease

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a group of chronic disorders that cause inflammation or ulceration in the small and large intestines. Most often IBD is classified as ulcerative colitis or Crohn's disease but may be referred to as colitis, enteritis, ileitis, and proctitis. Ulcerative colitis causes ulceration and inflammation of the inner lining of a couple of really bad places, while Crohn's disease is an inflammation that extends into the deeper layers of the intestinal wall. Ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease cause similar symptoms that often resemble other conditions such as irritable bowel syndrome (spastic colitis). The correct diagnosis may take some time. Crohn's disease usually involves the small intestine, most often the lower part (the ileum). In some cases, both the small and large intestine (those really bad places again) are affected. In other cases, only the SUPER really bad place is involved. Sometimes, inflammation also may affect the mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, appendix, or some nasty sounding word. Crohn's disease is a chronic condition and may recur at various times over a lifetime. Some people have long periods of remission, sometimes for years, when they are free of symptoms. There is no way to predict when a remission may occur or when symptoms will return.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most common symptoms of Crohn's disease are abdominal pain, often in the lower right area, and diarrhea. There also may be rectal bleeding, weight loss, and fever. Bleeding may be serious and persistent, leading to anemia (low red blood cell count). Children may suffer delayed development and stunted growth. What Causes Crohn's Disease and Who Gets It?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many theories about what causes Crohn's disease, but none has been proven. One theory is that some agent, perhaps a virus, affects the body's immune system to trigger an inflammatory reaction in the intestinal wall. Although there is a lot of evidence that patients with this disease have abnormalities of the immune system, doctors do not know whether the immune problems are a cause or a result of the disease. Doctors believe, however, that there is little proof that Crohn's disease is caused by emotional distress or by an unhappy childhood. Crohn's disease affects males and females equally and appears to run in some families. About 20 percent of people with Crohn's disease have a blood relative with some form of inflammatory bowel disease, most often a brother or sister and sometimes a parent or child. How Does Crohn's Disease Affect Children?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Women with Crohn's disease who are considering having children can be comforted to know that the vast majority of such pregnancies will result in normal children.

The Ideas of the Classical Theorists, Particularly

The ideas of the classical theorists, particularly those of bureaucracy and scientific management, are generally considered as rather old fashion and out of date, and of little relevance to work and organization today. Is this really the case? The classical theory is the earliest form of management that perceived that a set of universal principles would apply to all the organizations in all situations to achieve efficiency and organization's goals. co.uk/nursing-scientific-management-and-frederick-taylor/">Scientific management and bureaucratic theory were one of the several components of the classical school of organization.Important pioneers among them are Frederick Taylor and Max Weber. The classical theories have been contested of little relevance to work and organization today simply because today’s organizations have moved from industrial revolution to the information age due to the fast-paced change in technology (Toffler, 1984). Although bureaucracy has been synonymous to red tape and has negatives effects such as â€Å"rigidity, alienation and low commitment† (Adler, 1999, p. 7) and dehumanizing people (Grey, 2009), the characteristics of bureaucracy such as specialization, hierarchy of authority, system of rules and impersonality (Stewart, 1986) as well as evidence of ongoing existence of this management method, bureaucracy is proved to remain noteworthy. This essay will examine the situation presented in organization today, and determine whether bureaucracy and scientific management can be considered as old fashioned, out of date and of little relevance to work and organization today.With the broad set of powerful economic, social and technological changes – greater competition, globalization of production, rising demand for innovation, new forms of information technology and wide change in customer preferences have concluded that the days of stable structures of bureaucratic models are over. According to Warren, he concluded tha t there was no longer the stable business environment which bureaucracy exists, resulting in the rigid and formal rules of bureaucracy to be obsolete (Knights and Willmott, 2006). Like dinosaurs, mechanistic organizations are doomed and the days of post-bureaucracies have arrived† (Du Gay, 2005). With an increasing growth in knowledge-intensive sectors, for example consultancy companies, law and accounting firms, advertising agencies, research-and-development and IT companies, the need for flexibility and capacities for creative action has become more important than narrow efficiency (Karreman, Sveningsson and Alvesson, 2002).These knowledge-intensive firms are performing tasks that are more complex than before, making it more challenging to convert them into standardized work procedures and regulations, which make bureaucracy model become less relevant to work today. Supported by Mr Paul, who was the Vice-Chairman of Wipro from 1999 to 200, â€Å"IT service companies need a fundamental redesign. The bureaucracy is killing customer satisfaction† (Narasimhan, 2011). At the same time, it suggests employees demand for more flexibility and autonomy, rather than simply following orders and rules.However, studies show that knowledge-intensive companies are becoming more bureaucratic in their operations. In the case of Beta Consulting Company, â€Å"authority is seen practiced through hierarchy, work methodology is standardized and work procedures are fine-tuned towards predictability of outputs† (Karreman, Sveningsson and Alvesson, 2002). Since the 1970s, there is also an alleged shift from â€Å"industrial† to â€Å"post industrial† era, from mass production of standard products to short products for the niche markets.For example, the Apple IPhone demonstrates a shorter production run such as a new version of the IPhone is released every year (Smith, 2011). Post-bureaucracy is proposed as a new organizational model which is more ap propriate to today’s business environment in a sense that it is based on trust, empowerment, personal treatment and shared responsibility. A flatter and organic structure of post-bureaucracy is fundamental to allow employees to be more creative and capable of adapting themselves to the variety of new problems faced in today’s competitive environment.There is also a reduction in the level of hierarchy to allow employees to take greater responsibility, which in return increases job satisfaction (du Gay, 2005). On the contrary, greater responsibility can actually cause greater stress for employees, as they now no longer have the same level of protection that bureaucracies can provide. Nevertheless, the idea-type of post-bureaucracy also imposes problems such as lost of control, risk and unfairness (Knights and Willmott, 2006). The claims of the death of bureaucracy and the emergence of Post-Bureaucracy are further debated.Evidence of bureaucracy model is shown in George R itzer’s McDonaldization. Ritzer defines McDonaldization as, â€Å"the process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as of the rest of the world† (Ritzer, 2009, p. 4). The fast-food industry is the paradigm of McDonaldization and reflects on the instrumental rationality that Weber identified. In this case, the success of McDonald’s restaurants has been noticeable up till today and is because it offers consumers, workers and managers â€Å"efficiency, calculability, predictability and control† (Ritzer, 2009, p. 6). It provides convenience for the customer in today’s fast-paced environment and customers are ensured similar taste, quantity and quality to whichever restaurant they go. McDonald’s has also shown great evidence of the continuing use of Taylorism techniques for measuring, timing and evaluating work. One of the main aspects of scientific management that McDonald’s have implemented into their business is the Fordist management style where everyone works according to an assembly line. Fordism has been called â€Å"Taylorism plus the assembly line† (Rosenberg, 1969).During the days of Ford Motors, Henry Ford implemented the fordist model in the car-manufacturing firm, and McDonald’s have distinctly adapted this idea into their corporate culture. For example, the company has designed all of its food chain branches in such a style that employees do not have to take more than two steps to complete their task. Further evidence suggesting that Taylor’s ideas have been implemented would be for example, the importance of creating the best worker for the job, through the division of tasks and specialization among workers.The method in which McDonald’s for example, create their hamburger is a form of deskilling and division of task, by simplification of a task; first grilling the burger, putting in other ingredients, adding sauce, placing them onto bread roll and then wrapping it up. From this, a break down of job task and having each individual to do specific steps improves efficiency. Other aspects such as cooking times, drinks dispensers and french fries machines are used to limit the time needed to complete a task, hence showing aspects of scientific management (Jozzo1000, 2007).Without this management style, McDonald’s probably would not be in such dominant and efficient position in the market. However, the McDonaldization system has been heavily criticized. Despite the effect of Taylor’s scientific management on the workplace has increased productivity while replacing skilled craftsman with unskilled workers, it reduces workers to automatons. Individuals equipped with advanced skills are limited to highly simplified tasks and hence restricting them from living up to their human potential. It also assumes workers are satisfied by money alone.Frederick Herzbergâ⠂¬â„¢s two-factor theory has successfully supported this view. Herzberg developed a theory that contradicted Taylor’s ideas as he developed â€Å"job enrichment†. Herzberg stated that there are two factors that could motivate an individual, Hygiene and Motivator. Hygiene factors once fulfilled will remove job dissatisfaction but will not motivate. In order to motivate, the motivation factors must be fulfilled. This goes against Taylor’s ideas of workers are motivated primarily by salary as Herzberg’s analysis proved that money is not a motivating factor (Brooks, 2009).More criticisms such as in McDonald’s, tasks are repetitive and boring and hence employees are not motivated to do their job enthusiastically. Under those circumstances, it ignores the social and psychological needs of the employees, which in fact exert powerful influences workers behaviours. However, comments drawn from employees working experiences in McDonalds stated otherwise. A c rew member, Michaela said, â€Å"Doing work experience at McDonald’s made a big difference to how I approached things outside of work as well. Working on the till I learnt to make eye contact with people and speak clearly and with confidence; invaluable skills. And it can be further argued that employees do feel motivated working at McDonald’s. â€Å"Working at McDonald’s changed my outlook and made me a more motivated person†, said Umair, a crew trainer (McDonald’s Corporation, 2011). The McDonaldized system is not only seen within the fast-food industry, but also fast growing in call centres, an indication of the relevant bureaucracy model which is also known as â€Å"customer-oriented bureaucracy† (Du Gay, 2005, p. 98). One of the features of call centres is the focus on the standardization of the service encounter.A script is provided for call handlers to follow when talking on the phones. Supervisors regularly check on call centre staf f, listen in on calls to monitor the accuracy and general performance of the call handlers which managers are in fact keeping them under control. Taylor’s idea of payment method have also been successfully implemented such as call centre staffs are given a basic wage and then commission for every sale and if they meet their daily or weekly targets, they are given additional bonuses (Health ; Safety Executive, 2003).The technology offered today had in fact gradually made organizations become more bureaucratic and rationalized. For instance, Amazon had significantly shown to be a highly structured and highly rationalized organization in today’s competitive world. According to Valdez, â€Å"every item is scanned and logged on computers at every stage – knows who touches what† (Barkham, 2011). Staff working in the warehouse is in point of fact being controlled by the technology used today, which aid to the control of managers over workers.Furthermore, the war ehouse processes are simplified to prevent any human error. In short, aspects of scientific management are seen in its day-to-day warehouse operations with the aid of technology. According to Weber, bureaucracy is the most rational form of management. Despite the advantages bureaucracy offers such as efficiency and predictability, beneath the rational system lays the irrationality of rationality. People are dehumanized as they are being treated as machine like â€Å"cogs in a well-oiled machine† (Kast and Rosenzweig, 1979).In addition, â€Å"Instead of remaining efficient, bureaucracies can become increasingly inefficient† (Ritzer, 2009, p. 29). For example the case of IKEA, in terms of efficiency, it offers one-stop furniture shopping with a wide range of products. Furniture sold is unassembled, and customers are required to reassemble the parts themselves when they get home. Yet there are a variety of irrationalities associated with the rationality of IKEA, most nota bly the poor quality of most of its products. Although furniture is supposedly easy to assemble, many are more likely to think of it as impossible-to-assemble† (Ritzer, 2009). Besides the issue about irrationality of rational system, the â€Å"iron cage† of rationality is drawn into further concern. Weber views bureaucracy as a cage, in a sense that people are trapped in them without their basic humanity. The fear for that bureaucracy would grow more and more rational and will dominate an increasing number of sectors of society which â€Å"society would eventually become nothing more than a seamless web of rationalized structures; there would be no escape† (Ritzer, 2009, p. 30).A good example will be a 30 days Europe package tour. Bus travels through only the major cities in Europe, allowing tourists to view and take pictures of sights in the time allowed and then hop on to the next city. With the rationalization of even their recreational activities, people are in fact seen to be living in the iron cage of rationality, treating themselves like machines (Ritzer, 2009). Lastly, it is argued that bureaucracy ignores the substantive rationality and do not care about ethics and moral, they are about getting the task done as quickly as possible.The Holocaust case illustrates a good example that the bureaucratic practice made the Holocaust instrumentally rational while, not being substantively rational. Almost everyone will agree that the Holocaust practice of the massacre of a race of people is irrational, yet the fact that instrumentally rational methods could be applied to it, it exhibits the moral blindness of bureaucracy (Knights and Willmott, 2006). However, Du Gay argued otherwise. Bureaucracy do embodies an important ethic that is fairness.Such as bureaucracy does not care about employees’ gender or culture background but only cares about the basis of experience and qualifications since this is what will be most efficient. It is sa id to safeguard against discrimination. Given these points, bureaucracy embodies rather than ignore the moral and ethics (Du Gay, 2005). Indeed, bureaucracy like any other styles of management, inherently has both negative and positive effects, however some major aspects of bureaucracy and scientific management are still currently being successfully implemented in work and organizations today.Especially to those characterized by large-scale size, routine tasks and to those performance of which is essentially and vitally relies on high degree of hierarchy and formalization of bureaucratic form. Furthermore, the advancement in technology aid in the aspects of using scientific management in organizations today. Good examples will the fast-food industry and manufacturing industry. Nevertheless, in today’s highly competitive business industry, organizations need to increase their level of effectiveness through innovation and motivation of its employees at all levels.In order to ha ndle the growing market demand for constant innovation, a reduction of management structure might be necessary. Yet the core features of bureaucracy such as formalization, hierarchy, rules, staff expertise, conformance and clear accountability remain without doubt essential for organizations to deal with increasing competition. Therefore, to conclude, the classical school has withstood the test of time as it is still relevant to work and organization today. (2200 words) References Adler, Paul S. (1999) Building Better Bureaucracies. Academy of Management Executive, 13(4), pp. 6-49. Barkham, Patrick (2011) Amazon warehouse gears up for Christmas rush on Cyber Monday. The Guardian, [online] 1 December. Available at: ;http://www. guardian. co. uk/technology/2011/dec/01/amazon-warehouse-christmas-cyber-monday/print; [Accessed 10 December 2011]. Brooks, Ian (2009) Organisational Behaviour. 4th ed. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited. du Gay, Paul (2005) The Values of Bureaucracy. New York: Oxford University Press Inc. Grey, Chris (2009) A very short, fairly interesting and reasonably cheap book about studying organizations. 2nd ed.London: Sage Publications Ltd. Health ; Safety Executive (2003) Psychosocial risk factors in call centres: An evaluation of work design and well-being. [pdf] Sudbury: Health ; Safety Executive. Available at: ; www. hse. gov. uk/research/rrpdf/rr169. pdf ; [Accessed 28 November 2011]. Jozzo1000 (2007) McDonald’s Big Mac making. Available at: ;http://www. youtube. com/user/jozzo1000#p/a/u/1/eUvI2wE2YZk; [Accessed 28 November 2011]. Karreman, Dan. , Sveningsson, Stefan and Alvesson, Mats (2002) The Return of the Machine Bureaucracy?International Studies of Management ; Organisation, 32(2), pp. 70-92. Kast, Fremont Ellsworth and Rosenzweig, James Erwin (1979) Organisation and Management. 2nd ed. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill. Knights, David and Willmott, Hugh (2006) Introducing Organizational Behaviour ; Management. London: Thomas Learning. Mc Donald’s Corporation (2011) 2010/2011 Prospectus. [online] Available at: ;http://www. mcdonalds. co. uk/people/meet-our-people/meet-our-people. shtml; [Accessed 01 December 2011].Narasimhan, Balaji (2011) Bureaucracy hurting customer satisfaction, says Vivek Paul. The Hindu Business Line, [online] 11 November. Available at: ;http://www. thehindubusinessline. com/todays-paper/tp-info-tech/article2616005. ece; [Accessed 03 December 2011]. Smith, Josh (2011) iPhone 5 Release Date: What We Know and Potential Timeline. [online] Available at: ;http://www. gottabemobile. com/2011/08/23/iphone-5-release-date-what-we-know-and-potential-timeline/;[Accessed 03 December 2011]. Stewart, Rosemary (1986) The Reality of Management. 2nd ed. London: Pan Books.

Racial Prejudice And Racial Discrimination - 974 Words

For many years prejudice have been dominant throughout American history. Prejudice refers to a negative attitude toward and entire category of people, such as a racial or ethnic minority, while discrimination refers to behaviors directly to an individual and groups because of prejudice or for other arbitrary reason. (Schaefer, 2010) When people hear the word prejudice, they already know it’s a Black in society today. Our main goal is to remember how important it is that prejudice is a problem in society today, and it’s beyond race. For example, migration would be classified as a social conflict; especially if any citizens see that their lives will be threatened. When people are being prejudiced against others’ they have a biased belief about them or their cultural practices. Prejudices can be both positive and negative. On December 31, 2012 a Basic Data shows that 527,768 black males are in prison. (Golinelli, 2013) Prejudice would take an easily origin in America, and once it takes a hold it is hard to let it out. Racial minorities are more likely to be arrested than white Americans; once they are arrested, they would be convicted; and once that happen they would face more times than any other races. We all know that African-American are more likely to be in prison than any other races. The largest crime in the U.S. criminal justice system is based on race institution where black men are the main targeted in a more violent way than white people. Back here in 2007-2010Show MoreRelatedRacial Prejudice And Racial Discrimination1637 Words   |  7 Pagesreferencing the topic of racism and racial discrimination in today’s societ y, one of the biggest questions that still remain unanswered is as such: Why does racial discrimination still exist? What factors take place within the human mind that might cause feelings of hatred and bigotry? What can result from an individual using racially discriminating language? From times predating even the most notable case of as much, pre-Civil War United States American slavery, discrimination has existed in many differentRead MoreRacial Prejudice And Racial Discrimination Essay1347 Words   |  6 PagesRacial discrimination is one of many terms used to express the suppression of a race or many races, but more specifically, it refers to the ill-treatment a person or group receives as a result of differences in their race, color, descent, national, ethnic origin or immigrant status. (Australian Human Rights Commission, 2016). 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Between the ages of 3 and 6, they begin to understand and use stereotypes† (Pappas, â€Å"Young Kids Take Parents’ Word on Prejudice†)Read MoreRacism : Racial Discrimination And Prejudice1556 Words   |  7 Pagesfor everyone to be racist? Eventually, we have to change this cycle we will continue this ignorance. We should never allow reverse racism, this term is used to describe acts of discrimination and prejudice perpetrated by racial minorities or historically oppressed ethical groups against individuals belonging to the racial majority or historically dominant ethical groups, according to Wikiped ia. Apparently, â€Å"reverse racism does not exist and a person who claims otherwise is outing themselvesRead MoreRacial Prejudice And Racial Discrimination During The 1920 S1585 Words   |  7 Pageshistory of segregation and discrimination that has long affected present policy. It is clear that racial minorities have been targets of this racial bias for years, and even after slavery was abolished, African-Americans continued to face the most racism due to the color of their skin. Thus, by looking at how John Franklin’s life experience as a boy scout during the 1920’s illustrates a small peek into the history of race and ethnicity in America, we can see how racial hostility, and the Anglo-SaxonRead More Prejudice and Racial Discrimination in America Essay2564 Words   |  11 Pagespower From African Americans when they most needed it. Even today it is diminished but not vanquished as linguistic and educational challenges combine with disagreements amongst those cal ling for integration to further stall our ability to achieve racial harmony. Hatred is an ancient evil that may yet be conquered through understanding. The place to begin is of course at the beginning, when first the white man came dominate and slander the African man. For our purposes this begins back in theRead MoreRacial Prejudice And Discrimination On Children s Self Esteem1891 Words   |  8 PagesIntroduction Racial prejudice and discrimination can negatively affect children’s self-esteem. In 1954, the Supreme Court of the United States enacted the Brown v. Board of Education to outlaw racial segregation from public schools in order to establish equality among children of different racial and ethnic backgrounds (Zirkel, 2005). However, racial prejudice and discrimination still exist within the educational system where children continue to experience these inequalities (Zirkel, 2005). ClarkRead MoreChristian Prejudice and Racial Discrimination of Marginalized in the Merchant of Venice by William Shakespeare3691 Words   |  15 PagesIn Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice, there are quite a few cases in which the non-Christian characters are marginalized and victimized of Christian prejudice and absolute racism. The Christian prejudice and racial discrimination transpires through the use of language and terms of reference. In sixteenth-century Europe, Jews were a despised a nd persecuted minority. England, in fact, went beyond mere persecution and harassment by banning Jews from the country altogether. In theory at least, there